BHOPAL (MADHYA PRADESH)

Bhopal is the capital of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh and the administrative headquarters of Bhopal district and Bhopal division. The city was the capital of the former Bhopal State. Bhopal is known as the City of Lakes for its various natural as well as artificial lakes and is also one of the greenest cities in India. It is the 17th largest city in the country and 131st in the world.

A Y-class city, Bhopal houses various institutions and installations of national importance, including ISRO's Master Control Facility and BHEL. Bhopal is home to the largest number of Institutes of National Importance in India, namely IISER, MANIT,SPA, AIIMS and NLIU.

The city attracted international attention in December 1984 after the Bhopal disaster, when a Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) pesticide manufacturing plant (now owned by Dow Chemical Company) leaked a mixture of deadly gases composed mainly ofmethyl isocyanate, leading to one of the worst industrial disasters in the world's history. The Bhopal disaster continues to be a part of the socio-political debate and a logistical challenge for the people of Bhopal.

Bhopal has been selected as one of the first twenty Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under PM Narendra Modi'sflagship Smart Cities Mission. 

History

According to folklore, Bhopal was founded in 11th century by the Paramara king Bhoja, who ruled from his capital at Dhar. This theory states that Bhopal was originally known as Bhojpal after a dam ("pal") constructed by the king's minister. No available archaeological evidence, inscriptions or historical texts support the claim about an earlier settlement founded by Bhoja at the same place, although the Bhojeshwar Templeascribed to him exists at Bhojpur, which is located 28 km from Bhopal. An alternative theory says that the city is named after another king called Bhupala (or Bhupal).

In the early 18th century, Bhopal was a small village in the local Gond kingdom. The modern Bhopal city was established by Dost Mohammad Khan (1672–1728), an Afghansoldier in the Mughal army.After the death of the emperor Aurangzeb, Khan started providing mercenary services to several local chieftains in the politically unstable Malwaregion. In 1709, he took on the lease of Berasia estate, and later annexed several territories in the region to establish the Bhopal State. Khan received the territory of Bhopal from the Gond queen Kamlapati in lieu of payment for mercenary services, and usurped her kingdom after her death. In the 1720s, he built the Fatehgarh fort in the village, which developed into the city of Bhopal over the next few decades.

Bhopal became a princely state after signing a treaty with the British East India Company in 1818.Between 1819 and 1926, the state was ruled by four women, Begums, – unique in the royalty of those days - under British suzerainty. Qudsia Begum was the first woman ruler, who was succeeded by her only daughter Sikandar Begum, who in turn was succeeded by her only daughter, Shahjehan Begum. Sultan Jahan Begum was the last woman ruler, who after 25 years of rule, abdicated in favour of her son, Hamidullah Khan. The rule of Begums gave the city its waterworks, railways, a postal system and a municipality constituted in 1907.

Bhopal State was the second-largest Muslim-ruled princely state, the first being Hyderabad. After the independence of India in 1947, the last Nawab expressed his wish to retain Bhopal as a separate unit. Agitations against the Nawab broke out in December 1948, leading to the arrest of prominent leaders including Shankar Dayal Sharma. Later, the political detainees were released, and the Nawab signed the agreement for Bhopal's merger with the Union of India on 30 April 1949. The Bhopal state was taken over by the Union Government of India on 1 June 1949. Hindu Sindhi refugees from Pakistan were accommodated in Bairagarh, a western suburb of Bhopal (now renamed to Sant Hirdaram Nagar). According to the States Reorganization Act of 1956, the Bhopal state was integrated into the state of Madhya Pradesh, and Bhopal was declared as its capital. The population of the city rose rapidly thereafter.

THIRUVANANTHAPURAM (KERALA)

The history of Thiruvananthapuram dates back to the 10th century AD. The city and several other places in the district occupy an important place in ancient tradition,folklores and literature of the State of Kerala. The southern part of the state, particularly Thiruvananthapuram, had a political and cultural history in the early past which was in some respects independent from that of the rest of Kerala.

Ancient history

According to legend, the site of Thiruvananthapuram was once a jungle known as Anantan Kādu, which was home to a Pulayar couple who cultivated rice. One day, the wife heard a baby crying as she was weeding. After a search, she found a child so beautiful that she assumed it was divine and was afraid to touch it. She fed the baby some milk and left it in the shade of a tree, whereupon a five headed cobra appeared, moved the baby to a hole in the tree and used its hood to shelter the child from the sun. Realizing it was an incarnation of the Hindu deity Vishnu, the Pulayar and his wife made offerings of milk and congee in a coconut shell. Once the king of Travancore heard of the baby, he issued orders for the construction of a temple at the location.

The Ays were the leading political power till the beginning of the 10th century AD. During the Chera-Chola Wars from 999 to 1110 AD, the city of significance was Vizhinjam, which housed a university (Kanthalur Salai). Trivandrum housed the famous temple. All of the regions were attacked and sacked by the Chola army, till they were forced to retreat toKottar in 1110 AD. The disappearance of the Ays synchronised with the emergence of the rulers of Venad. During the Venad rule, the trustees of the temple (Ettarayogam) became powerful enough to challenge the authority of the rulers. Raja Aditya Varma was poisoned by them, and five out of six children of Umayamma Rani were murdered by them. In 1684, during her regency, the English East India Company obtained a sandy piece of land at Anchuthengu (Anjengo) on the sea coast, about 32 km north of Thiruvananthapuram city, for erecting a factory and fortifying it. The place had earlier been frequented by the Portuguese and later by the Dutch. It was from here that the English gradually extended their domain to other parts of Thiruvithamcore, anglicised as Travancore.

During the regency of Umayamma Rani, Travancore was invaded by a Mughal adventurer, known as the Mughal Sirdar, forcing the Rani to take refuge in Nedumangad. The Sardar camped in the suburbs of the present day Trivandrum, till he was defeated by Kerala Varma, a prince from the Kottayam royal family, adopted into the Venad royal family. The Rani was brought back in triumph to Trivandrum, but in 1696 AD, Kottayam Kerala Varma was assassinated by the trustees within the precincts of his own palace.

During the regin of another Aditya Varma (1718–1721), the clashes between the royal officials and the temple trustees became more common. Failing to get redress at the hands of the king, the tenants of the temple lands marched to Trivandrum to present their grievances to the Yogakkar (trustees), indicating the low ebb of the power of the king.

Modern history

Maharaja Marthanda Varma who reigned from 1729 to 1758, and who is regarded as the father of modern Travancore, modernised Thiruvananthapuram. The locals of Thiruvananthapuram supported him against the Ettuveetil Pillamar and Ettara Yogam when he was the heir-apparent, and when he was attacked by the agents of the trustees, he fled to the safety of Trivandrum, from where he counterattacked . During his reign, he renovated the Padmanabhaswamy Temple and the walls of the fortress. He also shifted the capital legally from Padmanabhapuram to Thiruvananthapuram, which he made a great centre of intellectual and artistic activity. In 1791, the English East India Company signed a treaty to protect Travancore from the Kingdom of Mysore and under its terms was allowed to install a Resident and troops in Thiruvananthapuram. In 1799, Velu Thampi, then a Karyakar of Talakkulam, led a march of the local people to Thiruvananthapuram to protest against the corruption of the Kings's ministers. The accession of Maharaja Swathi Thirunal who reigned from 1829 to 1847, ushered in an epoch of cultural progress and economic prosperity. The beginning of English education was marked in 1834 by the opening of an English school at Thiruvananthapuram. An observatory and a charity hospital were also established in 1836. During the reign of Maharaja Uthram Thirunal, Rev. Mead, an Anglican priest of the London Missionary Society (L.M.S.), was employed by the Maharajah to improve the quality of education. Schools, including one for girls, were started in Thiruvananthapuram.

During the reign of Maharaja Moolam Thirunal (1885–1924), a College of Fine Arts was opened here besides the several English, Malayalam and Tamil schools, all over the State. A large hospital with lying-in-facility and a lunatic asylum were also established in Thiruvananthapuram. The Trivandrum University College was started in 1873, with Dr. Read as its principal. A Law class was opened in Thiruvananthapuram in 1874, and the main building of the old Kerala Government Secretariat was designed and constructed by the Maharajah's chief engineer, Mr. Barton. Mr. Barton also improved the sanitation of the city. It was during the reign of Sri Moolam Thirunal (1885–1924), that the Sanskrit College, Ayurveda College, Law College and a second grade College for Women were started here. A department for the preservation and publication of oriental manuscripts was also established.

One of the significant aspects associated with Maharaja Sree Moolam Thirunal’s reign was the inauguration of the Legislative Council in 1888. This was the first legislative chamber, instituted in an Indian State. The Sri Moolam Assembly came into being in 1904. The activities of the Indian National Congress echoed in Thiruvananthapuram and other parts of Kerala during the reign of Maharaja Sree Moolam Thirunal.

During the regency of Maharani Setu Lakshmi Bai, the college for Women at Trivandrum was raised to the first grade.

A political conference of the Congress was held in the city under the presidency of Dr. Pattabhi Sitaramaiah, in 1938. The period of Maharaja Sri Chitra Thirunal Bala Rama Varma who took the reins of administration in 1931, witnessed many-sided progress. The promulgation of the Temple Entry Proclamation (1936) was an act that underlined social emanicipation. In 1937, a separate University for Travancore was started. This was later redesignated as the University of Kerala, following the formation of the State of Kerala in 1956. With the accession of Travancore to the Indian Union after Independence, the policy of the State Government as well as the political atmosphere underwent radical changes. The first popular ministry headed by Sri Pattom A. Thanu Pillai was installed in office on 24 March 1948.

BENGALURU (KARNATAKA)

Bengaluru is India's IT city and outsourcing capital of the world . It is also capital city of the state of Karnataka.

Bengaluru previously Bendakaluru was founded by Kempe Gowda I, who built a mud fort at the site in 1537. It has been developed over the years into an industrial and technological hub in India.

Gangas, Cholas and Hoysalas

The Gangas ruled Gangavadi from Kolar starting c. 350 and later shifted their capital to Talakadu.Their rule often extended over large parts of Tamil Nadu. An article, published in The Hindu, states:

An inscription, dating back to 890 AD, shows Bengaluru is over 1,000 years old. But it stands neglected at the Parvathi Nageshwara Temple in Begur near the city ... written inhale Kannada (old Kannada) of the 9th Century, the epigraph refers to a Bengaluru war in 890 AD in which Buttanachetty, a servant of Nagatta, died.

Though this has been recorded by historian R. Narasimhachar in his "Epigraphia of Carnatica" (Vol. 10 supplementary), no efforts have been made to preserve it. The inscription stone found near Begur reveals, that the district was part of the Ganga kingdom ruled from Gangavadi until 1024 C.E and was known as 'Benga-val-oru', the City of Guards in oldKannada.

Edgar Thurston (Castes and Tribes of India Volume 5) states that the Kongu region was ruled by a series of twenty eight kings before being conquered by the Cholas of Tanjore, citing the earliest portion of the Kongu Chronicle - Kongu Desa Rajakkal (a manuscript in The Mackenzie Collection) which gives a series of short notices of the reigns of all the kings who ruled the country from the start of the Christian era till its conquest by the Cholas. These kings belonged to two distinct dynasties: the earlier line of the Solar racewhich had a succession of seven kings of the Ratti tribe, and the later line of the Ganga race, itself claimed to be a branch of the Solar race.

The Hoysala architecture is noted for its elaborate motifs.

In the year 1120 AD, the Hoysala King, Veera Ballala ruled the Deccan plateau or the South of India. On a hunting trip in the forest he lost his way. After a long search he met an old lady in the forest who offered him shelter for the night and served him some boiled beans for dinner. To show his gratitude to this lady for having saved his life, the King constructed a town and named it as Benda Kalooru which means town of boiled beans. Later in 1537, a local chieftain, Kempe Gowda helped design this town and give it its modern shape.

In 1024 C.E, the Chola Empire captured the city. Today, little evidence can be seen of this period. A small village in south Bengaluru and one inAnantapur district bear the Chola name but the residents are of native stock. The later Gangas often fought alongside the Chalukyas,Rastrakutas and the Hoysalas. In 1117 C.E, the Hoysala king Veera Ballala II defeated the Cholas in the battle of Talakad which led to the downfall of the Chola empire.

A popular anecdote recounts that the 11th-century Hoysala king Veera Ballala II, while on a hunting expedition, lost his way in the forest. Tired and hungry, he came across a poor old woman who served him boiled lady's finger. The grateful king named the place "benda kaal-ooru" (Kannada: ಬೆಂದ ಕಾಳು ಊರು) (literally, "town of boiled beans"), which was eventually colloquialised to "Bengalūru".There are also theories that the name has a floral origin and is derived from the tree Benga or "Ven-kai", also known as the Indian Kino Tree (Pterocarpus marsupium). The city as it is known today was named by Kempe Gowda I.

There is an inscription dated 1628 C.E in the Ranganatha Temple in Telugu. The English translation of which is "Be it well, When Rajadhi-Raja-Parameshwara Vira Pratapa Vira-Maha-Deva Maharaya seated in the Jewel throne was ruling the empire of the world: When of the Asannavakula, the Yelahanka Nadu Prabhu Kempanacharya-Gauni's grandson Kempe Gowda's son, Immadi Kempegaunayya was ruling a peaceful kingdom in righteousness with the decline of the Vijayanagar empire, the eclipse of the rule of Yelahanka Nadu Prabhus took place at the dawn of the 17th century."

Vijayanagara and Kempe Gowda

Kempe Gowda I (1510–1570), Modern Bengaluru was founded by a feudatory of the Vijayanagara Empire, who built a mud fort in 1537. Kempe Gowda also referred to the new town as his "gandu bhoomi" or "Land of Heroes". Within Bangalore, the town was divided into petes (IPA: [pete]) or market. The town had two main streets: Chickkapete Streetran east-west and Doddapete Street ran north-south. Their intersection formed Doddapete square — the heart of then Bangalore. Kempe Gowda's successor, Kempe Gowda II, built temples, tanks including Kempapura and Karanjikere tanks and four watching towers that marked Bengaluru's boundary.

The four watchtowers built at the time in Bengaluru are still seen today.

• in Lal Bagh
• near Kempambudhi tank
• near Ulsoor Lake
• near Mekhri Circle

Sultanate of Bijapur

It was captured by the Maratha chief Shahaji Bhosale, father of Shivaji, then working for the Adil Shahi sultans of Bijapur in 1638. During the siege of Bengaluru, Shivaji's elder brother Sambhaji was killed by Shahaji's rivals, led by the Ghorpade of Mudhol, for which Shivaji was to later exact revenge.

Mughal Influence

After conquering the Sultanate of Bijapur, the Mughals under the commandership of Khasim Khan, then arrived in Bengaluru, which was then ruled by Shivaji's brother Veankoji/ Ekoji Bhonsale as a jagir (fief) of Bijapur in 1686; Vyankoji retreated further south.

The Mughals in turn sold Bengaluru to the Kingdom of Mysore's ruler Chikkadevaraja Wodeyar in 1689 for three lakhs which he had originally negotiated with Venkoji / Ekoji Bhonsle. Bangalore was given as a personal Jahgir by the then Woedeyar King Immadi Krishna Raja Wodeyar to Haider Ali made in 1759. But by 1761 he had become a de facto Ruler and was proclaimed as the Saravadhikari (Regent) of the Kingdom.

Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan

When Hyder Ali died, his son Tipu Sultan deposed the weak Wodeyar, proclaimed himself Sultan. Under Tipu Sultan and Hyder Ali the state progressed economically and trade flourished with many foreign nations through the ports of Mangalore. Several attempts by the British to capture Bengaluru were repulsed by the Mysorean Army, most notably in 1768 when Hyder Ali forced Colonel Nicholson of the British Army to lift his siege of Bengaluru. The French under Napoleon had promised to drive the British from India. Tipu successfully stalled the British in the first, second and third Anglo-Mysore Wars.

Bangalore fort was captured by the British armies under Lord Cornwallis on 21 March 1791 during the Third Anglo-Mysore War and formed a centre for British resistance against Tipu Sultan,^[7] being incorporated into the British Indian Empire after Tipu Sultan was defeated and killed in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799). A prominent role was played by the Madras Sappers in the capture of the Fort and subsequent development of the cantonment and the city. Bangalore is the permanent home of this Indian Army regiment since the mid-nineteenth century.

RANCHI(JHARKHAND)

Ranchi district is one among the twenty-four districts of the state of Jharkhand in Eastern India. This region was under the control of the Magadha Empire, then it was a part of the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka the Great and later a part of the Gupta Empire. After the fall of the Gupta Empire a legendary king named Phanimukut established the Nag Dynasty and controlled the Chota Nagpur plateau region for several centuries thereafter.

Early history

The district, located in the Chota Nagpur plateau region was previously inhabited by large communities of aboriginal village people mostly of Munda and Oraon races. The communities gradually succumbed to the pressure of the Nagbansi family who ruled the city for a long time as Nagbansi Rajas. They also succeeded in establishing control over vast tracts of uncultivated forest lands.

Mughal period

The region was free from any external influence until the accession of Akbar the Great to the Mughal throne. In the year 1585, Akbar's forces defeated the Raja of Kokrah (Chota Nagpur plateau) and exploited the resources of the region. Thus Muslim rule was established in the region which continued for a long time thereafter.

Later Jahangir, the son of Akbar sent his forces under the leadership of the Governor of Bihar, Ibrahim Khan and captivated the forty-fifth Kokrah chief, Durjan Sal to Delhi and later to Gwalior for a period of twelve years. Later the chief was reinstated at Kokrah with a fixed tribute. Thus the issue was settled for a certain period of time until the region eventually came under the British rule.

British Raj

After the Battle of Plassey in 1757, the British Raj established its firm control over the Indian subcontinent. In 1765, Chota Nagpur region also went into their control. A settlement was made by the British in 1772 with Nagbansi Maharaja. This administration could not last long. In 1817 the Ranchi district along with the adjoining territories were directly administrated by the Magistrate of Ramgarh. The discontent expressed the people took the form of various revolts in the years 1811, 1820 and 1831. To control these revolts and for better administration, a separate province named South-Western Frontier Agency was formed in 1833 which included the Chota Nagpur region and also the adjoining region of Dhalbhum. The district was known as Lohardaga district and also included the present day district of Palamu. The city of Lohardaga was the administrative headquarters of the district. However in 1840, the headquarters were moved to Ranchi and in 1892 the subdivision of Palamu along with the Tori pargana were formed into a separate district. The South-Western Frontier Agency was directly administrated by an agent to the Governor-General. In 1854, the system of governance in Chota Nagpur changed once again and the region was constituted as a Non-regulation province under the control of the Commissioner.

1857 Movement

In the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, the main head of the Chota Nagpur region did not interfere but the Ramgarh Battalion at Ranchi participated in the mutiny. Several possessions, estates and property of the Zamindars were confiscated. The British eventually succeeded in regaining control over the region and the revolt was suppressed.

Main events after 1857

After 1857, for several years there was no significant system of Governance with the Munda population expressing discontent over the condition of their people. The last fifteen years of the nineteenth century were constituted by agitations of the sardars or leaders whose chief objective was to make a living for themselves at the expense of the people. In 1899, a small rising was initiated by Birsa Munda, who encouraged the people to revolt and restore the pride of the Munda tribe. The people revered him as a God-sent leader with miraculous powers. The movement was suppressed with ease by the local authorities and Birsa Munda was imprisoned in the Ranchi Jail, where he died few years later. In 1899, the name of the Lohardaga district was changed to Ranchi district.

During Freedom Struggle

The district played an important role during the Indian struggle for independence. Under the guidance of Ganesh Chandra Ghosh Ranchi became an epicenter of activities for the followers of Revolutionary campaigns. Ranchi was the venue of two meetings between Mahatma Gandhi and Sir Edward Albert Gait, Lieutenant Governor of Bihar and Orissa on 4 June 1917 and another meeting on 22 September 1917 in the context of the Champaran Indigo planters repressive measures against the raiyats of the district. The Champaran agrarian law subsequently passed as Bihar and Orissa Act-I of 1918.

Post Independence

After India achieved Independence, Ranchi district was included in the state of Bihar. Lohardaga district was created from a portion of Ranchi district in 1983. But, after the formation of the state of Jharkhand on 15 November 2000,the district became the first district of the newly formed state. Later, Khunti district was carved out of Ranchi district on 12 September 2007. 

JAMMU (JAMMU KASHMIR) winter capital

Jammu is the largest city in the Jammu Division and the winter capital of state of Jammu and Kashmir. It is situated on the banks of Tawi river. It is administered by a municipal corporation

Etymology

The name Jammu is derived from its ruler who founded it. Raja Jambulochan founded this city and named it Jambupur which later changed to Jammu. Many historians and locals believe that Jammu was founded by Raja Jambu Lochan in the 14th century BC. During one of his hunting campaigns, he reached the Tawi River where he saw a goat and a lion drinking water at the same place. Having satisfied their thirst, the animals went their own ways. The Raja was amazed, abandoned the idea of hunting and returned to his companions. Recounting what he had seen, he exclaimed that this place, where a lion and a goat could drink water side by side, was a place of peace and tranquility. The Raja commanded that a palace be built at this place and a city was founded around it. This city became known as Jambu-Nagar, which then later changed into Jammu.

History

Jammu has historically been the capital of Jammu Province and the winter capital of the erstwhile Jammu and Kashmir princely state (1846–1952). Jambu Lochan was the brother of Raja Bahu Lochan who constructed a fort, Bahu Fort, on the bank of river Tawi. The city name figures in the ancient book Mahabharata. Excavation near Akhnoor, 32 kilometres (20 mi) from Jammu city, provides evidence that Jammu was once part of the Harappan civilization. Remains from the Maurya, Kushan, Kushanshahs and Gupta periods have also been found in Jammu. After 480 CE, the area was dominated by the Hephthalites and ruled from Kapisaand Kabul. They were succeeded by the Kushano-Hephthalite dynasty from 565 to 670 CE, then by the Shahi from 670 CE to the early 11th century, when the Shahi were destroyed by the Ghaznavids. Jammu is also mentioned in accounts of the campaigns of Timur. The area witnessed changes of control following invasions by Mughals and Sikhs, before finally falling under the control of the British. The Dev Dynasty ruled it for about 984 years from 840 CE to 1816 CE.The city remained in scientific isolation and lagged behind other Indian cities. Then came the Dogra Rule that revived its ancient glory by building great temples, renovated old shrines, built educational institutes and many more. A 43 km long railway line connecting Jammu with Sialkot was laid in 1897but it was abandoned after the Partition of India as the railway link to Sialkot was broken. Jammu had no rail services until 1971, when the Indian Railways laid the Pathankot - Jammu Tawi Broad Gauge line. The new Jammu Tawi station was opened in 1975. In 2000, much of the old railway station was demolished to make way for an art centre. After partition of India, Jammu continued to be the winter capital of the state.

SRINAGAR (JAMMU KASHMIR) summer capital

Srinagar is the largest city and the summer capital of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. It lies on the banks of the Jhelum River, a tributary of the Indus, and Dal and Anchar lakes. The city is famous for its gardens, waterfronts and houseboats. It is also known for traditional Kashmiri handicrafts and dried fruits.

History

Ancient period

The Burzahom archaeological site located 10 km from Srinagar has revealed the presence of neolithic and megalithic cultures.

According to Kalhana's 12th century text Rajatarangini, a king named Pravarasena II established a new capital named Pravarapura (also known as Pravarasena-pura). Based on topographical details, Pravarapura appears to be same as the modern city of Srinagar. Aurel Stein dates the king to sixth century CE.

Kalhana also mentions that a king named Ashoka had earlier established a town called Srinagari. Kalhana describes this town in hyperbolic terms, stating that it had "9,600,000 houses resplendent with wealth". According to Kalhana, this Ashoka reigned before 1182 BCE, and was a member of the dynasty founded by Godhara. Kalhana also states that this king had adopted the doctrine of Jina, constructed stupas and Shiva temples, and appeased Bhutesha (Shiva) to obtain his son Jalauka. Multiple scholars identify Kalhana's Ashoka with the 3rd century Buddhist Mauryan emperor Ashoka despite these discrepancies.Although "Jina" is a term generally associated withJainism, some ancient sources use it to refer to the Buddha. Romila Thapar equates Jalauka to Kunala, stating that "Jalauka" is an erroneous spelling caused by a typographical error in Brahmi script.

Ashoka's Srinagari is generally identified with Pandrethan (near present-day Srinagar), although there is an alternative identification with a place on the banks of the Lidder River. According to Kalhana, Pravarasena II resided at Puranadhishthana ("old town") before the establishment of Pravarapura; the name Pandrethan is believed to be derived from that word.Accordining to V. A. Smith, the original name of the "old town" (Srinagari) was transferred to the new town.^[11]

Srinagar in 14th to 19th centuries

Srinagar and Environ map 1911

The independent Hindu and the Buddhist rule of Srinagar lasted until the 14th century when the Kashmir valley, including the city, came under the control of the several Muslim rulers, including the Mughals. It was also the capital during the reign of Yusuf Shah Chak, an Independent Kashmiri ruler who was tricked by Akbar when Akbar failed to conquer Kashmir by force. Yusuf Shah Chak remains buried inBihar. Akbar established Mughal rule in Srinagar and Kashmir valley.

With the disintegration of the Mughal empire after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, infiltrations to the valley from the Pashtun tribes increased, and the Durrani Empire ruled the city for several decades.

Maharaja Ranjit Singh of Punjab province annexed a major part of the Kashmir Valley, including Srinagar, to his kingdom in the year 1814 and the city came under the influence of the Sikhs.

In 1846, the Treaty of Lahore was signed between the Sikh rulers and the British in Lahore. The treaty inter alia provided British de facto suzerainty over the Kashmir Valley and installed Gulab Singh as an independent and sovereign ruler of the region. Srinagar became part of his kingdom and remained until 1947 as one of several princely states inBritish India. The Maharajas choose Sher Garhi Palace as their main Srinagar residence.

Srinagar city and its vicinity in 1959

Post Independence

After India and Pakistan's independence from Britain, villagers around the city of Poonch began an armed protest at continued rule of the Maharaja on 17 August 1947. In view of the Poonch uprising, certain Pashtun tribes such as Mehsud and Afridi from mountainous region of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa of Pakistan and with its collusion, entered the Kashmir valley to capture it on 22 October 1947. The Maharaja, who had refused to accede to either India or Pakistan in hopes of securing his own independent state, signed the instrument of accession in exchange for refuge on 26 October 1947, as Pakistani-backed tribesmen approached the outskirts of Srinagar. The Accession was accepted by India the next day. The government of India immediately airlifted Indian troops to Srinagar and prevented the tribesmen from reaching the city.

In 1989, Srinagar became the focus of the Kashmiri uprising against Indian rule and the Indian military, which has been present since 1990, and the area continues to be a highly politicized hotbed of separatist activity with frequent spontaneous protests and strikes ("bandhs" in local parlance). On 19 January 1990, the Gawakadal massacre of at least 50 unarmed protestors by Indian forces,and up to 280 by some estimates from eyewitness accounts,set the stage for bomblasts, shootouts, and curfews that characterized Srinagar throughout the early and mid-1990s. Further massacres in the spring of 1990 in which 51 unarmed protesters were allegedly killed by Indian security forces in Zakura and Tengpora heightened anti-Indian sentiments in Srinagar. As a result, bunkers and checkpoints are found throughout the city, although their numbers have come down in the past few years as militancy has declined. However, frequent protests still occur against Indian rule, such as the 22 August 2008 rally in which hundreds of thousands of Kashmiri civilians protested against Indian rule in Srinagar. Similar protests took place every summer for the next 4 years. In 2010 alone 120 unarmed protestors were killed by police and CRPF, most recently protest following the execution of Afzal Guru in February 2013.

The city also saw increased violence against minorities, particularly the Kashmiri Hindus, starting from mid-80s and resulting in their ultimate exodus.Posters were pasted to walls of houses of Pandits, telling them to leave or die, temples were destroyed and houses burnt;but a very small minority of pandits still remains in the city. The recent years have seen protests in Srinagar from local Kashmiri pandits for protection of their shrines in Kashmir and their rights.